
HISTORY OF PORTUGAL
Portugal has a fascinating and highly varied history. The area contains some of the oldest human settlements in Europe. For more than a thousand years, the country was later occupied by Romans, Germanic tribes, and Moors. From this, the country of Portugal emerged as Europe's first nation-state and developed an incredibly rich global empire that dominated large parts of the world. It then fell into economic and political chaos, as well as a very different kind of dictatorship for many years. Today, the country's development is impressive and it is seen by many as one of the world's most stable, secure, and safe countries with a fantastic cultural heritage

Early life in Portugal
Hominids have lived in the Iberian Peninsula for a very long time. Many of the best-preserved prehistoric remains are in the Atapuerca region of northern Spain, rich in limestone caves that have preserved the records of a million years of human evolution. Among these sites is the Gran Dolina cave, where six hominid bones dating from 780,000 to 1.2 million years ago have been found. This makes it one of Europe´s earliest places of settlement.
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Aroeira 3 is a 400,000-year-old hominid skull that was discovered 2014 in the Aroeira cave. Homo Heidelbergensis existed at the transition between Homo Erectus and early Neanderthals and used both stone tools and fire. Homo Sapiens arrived in Portugal around 40,000 years ago.
The Roman Era
The Romans invaded Portugal in 197 BC and ruled the country for almost 600 years. The Romans first entered the Iberian Peninsula during the Punic Wars against Carthage. Their initial interest was more about countering Carthaginian influence than establishing a permanent presence. The Romans gradually expanded their control, facing stiff resistance from various indigenous tribes, including the Lusitanians, led by the legendary Viriathus. By the end of the 1st century BC, following the campaigns of Julius Caesar and Augustus, the entire region of modern-day Portugal was under Roman control.
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Portugal was rich in mineral resources, including gold, tin, and copper. The Romans exploited these resources, which became a significant part of the imperial economy. The introduction of Roman agricultural techniques and crops (like olives and grapes) transformed the landscape and economy. Portugal became known for its olive oil and wine, which were exported throughout the empire.
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Latin, the language of the Romans, became the basis of Portuguese. Roman legal and administrative systems were established, which influenced local governance even after the Roman Empire's decline. During the later Roman era, Christianity spread across the region, laying the foundation for Portugal's Christian identity.
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Latin, the language of the Romans, became the basis of Portuguese. Roman legal and administrative systems were established, which influenced local governance even after the Roman Empire's decline. During the later Roman era, Christianity spread across the region, laying the foundation for Portugal's Christian identity.
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The Romans founded or developed several cities in Portugal, such as Olisipo (Lisbon), Bracara Augusta (Braga), and Aeminium (Coimbra). They built a network of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and temples, many of which are still visible today. The town of Ponte de Lima is the oldest town in Portugal and was founded by the Romans as an important bridge over the Lima River. The bridge was part of the Roman road that linked Braga (Bracara Augusta) to Santiago de Compostela in Spain.
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The Roman period in Portugal was a time of profound transformation that impacted the region's cultural, linguistic, architectural, and social landscape. This era is a pivotal chapter in Portugal's rich historical tapestry, illustrating the integration of local traditions with Roman influences to create a unique cultural identity.
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During this time, Portugal also became one of the earliest Christian countries in the world. Jakob, the apostle of Jesus Christ, came to northwest Portugal in the year 44. The first bishop, St. Pedro de Rates, was installed in Braga in the year 45, just 12 years after Jesus Christ's crucifixion. Since then Braga is a world center for Christianity.
The Germanic and Moorish Periods
In 409, with the decline of the Roman Empire, the Iberian Peninsula was occupied by Germanic tribes. An important group was made up of the Suebi in Gallaecia, who founded the Kingdom of the Suebi with its capital in Braga. They also came to dominate Aeminium (Coimbra).
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In south the Visigoths ruled. The Suebi and the Visigoths were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in the territories corresponding to modern Portugal. The Visigothic invasion, completed in 585, turned the kingdom of the Suebi into the sixth province of the Visigothic kingdom. For the next 300 years, the entire Iberian Peninsula was ruled by the Visigoths.
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The Portuguese way of living in regions north of the Tagus is inherited from the Suebi, in which small farms prevail, diffrent from the large properties of Southern Portugal. During this time, the church began to play an important part within the state.
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In 711, the Moors, North African Muslims, invaded Portugal and occupied especially the southern part of Portugal for many years. The Medieval Muslim Moors, who conquered and destroyed the Christian Visigothic kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, were a mix of Berbers from North Africa and Arabs from the Middle East.
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The Muslims called their conquests in Iberia “al-Andalus,” which mainly consisted of the old Roman province of Lusitania (the central and southern regions of the country), while Gallaecia (the northern regions) remained unsubdued. The Muslim rule in Iberia would last until 1492 with the fall of the Kingdom of Granada. Some regions, including Lisbon and the rest of what would become Portugal, rebelled and succeeded in freeing themselves by the early 10th century.
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Also, Normans and Vikings attacked the northern coastal regions during this time, mainly from 844. The last great invasion, through the Minho, ended with the defeat of Olaf Haraldsson in 1014 against the Galician nobility who also stopped further advances into the County of Portugal.
The Formation of Portugal
At the end of the 9th century, a small minor county based in the area of Portus Cale (today Porto and Gaia) was established on the orders of King Alfonso III of León, Galicia, and Asturias. The county increased in size and importance and, from the 10th century, it became known simultaneously as Portucale, Portugale, and Portugalia - the County of Portugal.
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Portugal grew in power and territory as a vassal of the Kingdom of León and occasionally gained de facto independence during weak Leonese reigns. Portugal traces its national origin to 24 June 1128, the date of the Battle of São Mamede. Afonso proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal after this battle and in 1139, he assumed the title King of Portugal. In 1143, the Kingdom of León recognized him as King of Portugal by the Treaty of Zamora. In 1179, Pope Alexander III officially recognized Afonso I as king. After the Battle of São Mamede, the first capital of Portugal was Guimarães, from which the first king ruled. Later, when Portugal was already officially independent, he ruled from Coimbra. Portugal has had the same defined borders since 1139, making it the oldest nation in Europe.

The Age of Discovery
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portugal established the first global maritime empire, becoming one of the world's major economic, political, and military powers. Prince Henry the Navigator pioneered maritime exploration, leading to significant discoveries along the coast of Africa. Henry strongly supported the development of new ships and advancements in navigational techniques. His commitment and foresight set the stage for the Portuguese Age of Discovery, which would lead to the discovery of sea routes to India, Brazil, and East Asia.
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Explorers like Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, Bartolomeu Dias and Ferdinand Magellan discovered new areas on earth, and Portuguese colonies were established in Africa, Asia, and South America. The Portuguese Empire was the first global empire in history. Portugal became a major economic and military power, controlling global trade. The empire was also spreading the Portuguese language and culture globally.


During the 1200th, trade with England intensified. 1386 was the Treaty of Windsor, a diplomatic alliance signed between Portugal and England. This alliance is still valid and states a pact of mutual support between the two countries. The University of Coimbra was established in 1290, making it one of the oldest universities on the European continent. Science and knowledge developed rapidly, and the country increasingly became a leading European nation.
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The ruling royal Avis Dynasty would proceed to push Portugal to the limelight of European politics and culture, creating and sponsoring works of literature. In an effort to solidify and centralize royal power, the monarchs of this dynasty also ordered the compilation, organization and publication of laws in Portugal. Works of architecture like the Mosteiro da Batalha were also sponsored and led to the creation of the Manueline style of architecture in the 16th century.
Crises, First Republic and Estado Novo
In 1807, Portugal refused Napoleon Bonaparte's demand to support the embargo against the United Kingdom. A French invasion followed, and Lisbon was captured on the 8th of December 1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War helped in maintaining Portuguese independence.
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In 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. In Portugal, political crises arose. The economic situation of the country was very bad. People questioned the monarchy, and on the 5th of October, 1910, the Portuguese republican revolution happened, which abolished the monarchy and installed a republican government. The First Republic was established.
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The new government started disestablishing the powerful role that the Catholic Church once held. Churches were plundered, convents were attacked and clergy were harassed. The lack of consensus around Portugal's intervention in World War I escalated the political instability. People were disappointed by the new political system.
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The rise of other European powers, such as Spain and the Netherlands, challenged Portuguese dominance. After a succession crisis in the late 16th century and a subsequent war with Spain, an Iberian Union was formed. Portugal was officially an autonomous state, but the country was in a personal union with the Spanish crown from 1580 to 1640. The war between the Netherlands and Portugal from 1595 to 1663 led to invasions of many countries in Asia and competition for commercial interests in Japan, Africa, and South America.
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Another disaster happened on the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale of 9. The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and fires. The city was anyhow rebuilt within less than one year.
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A military coup took place on the 26th of May 1926. This military installed the "Second Republic", which started as a national dictatorship that became the Estado Novo (New State) in 1933, led by economist António de Oliveira Salazar a political economy professor at the University of Coimbra. His way of leading Portugal was conservative, corporatist and nationalist in nature. Salazar defended Portugal's traditional Catholicism and opposed communism, socialism, and liberalism.
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Within one year, Salazar balanced the budget and stabilized Portugal's currency. From 1950 until Salazar's death in 1970, Portugal's GDP per capita increased at an annual average rate of 5.7 percent. Despite the remarkable economic growth, Portugal still had the lowest per capita income and the lowest literacy rate in Western Europe when he died.
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Portugal was officially neutral in World War II, but in practice, Salazar collaborated with the British. Portugal joined the United Nations (UN) in 1955 and was a founding member of NATO (1949), the OECD (1961), and EFTA (1960).
Post-revolution period
After the death of Salazar in 1970, his replacement by Marcelo Caetano offered a certain hope that the regime would open up. However, political prisoners remained incarcerated, freedom of association was not restored, censorship was only slightly eased, and the elections remained tightly controlled.
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Between 1961 and 1974, the Portuguese Colonial War marked a fierce struggle across Portugal’s African territories. In Angola, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique, nationalist movements fought to break free from centuries of Portuguese rule. The war cost many lives, huge suffering, and a lot of resources, something that resulted in political consequences in Portugal.
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The Carnation Revolution of April 25, 1974, an effectively bloodless left-wing military coup, installed the "Third Republic" and implemented broad democratic reforms. In 1975, Portugal granted independence to its overseas provinces, a decision that resulted in nearly 1 million Portuguese leaving these former colonies as refugees.


The post-revolution period was characterized by chaos and negative economic growth, as industries became nationalized and the effects of the decoupling of Portugal from its former overseas territories, especially Angola and Mozambique, were felt. Portugal quickly went from the country with the highest growth rate in Western Europe to the lowest. This was amplified by the mass emigration of skilled workers and entrepreneurs due to communism-inspired politics along with economic stagnation.
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The Portuguese economy experienced a rapid, and sometimes uncontrollable, expansion of public expenditures. The elimination of competition following the public takeover of industries such as cement, chemicals, and trucking reduced managerial incentives for cost reduction and technical advances. From a modest surplus before the revolution in 1973, the government balance swung to a wide deficit of 12 percent of GDP in 1984. Redistribution of national income from property owners, entrepreneurs, and private managers to industrial and agricultural workers resulted in overconsumption.
The Modern Portugal
In 1989, the new conservative Prime Minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, succeeded in changing the constitution to permit the denationalization of state-owned banks and other public enterprises. Privatization, economic deregulation, and tax reform became even more in focus as Portugal prepared for the salient concerns of public policy as Portugal prepared itself for entering the Eurozone in 2002.
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The late 2000s recession, when much of the industrialized world entered a deep recession, led to increased unemployment and a downturn in Portugal, which became one of the first and most affected economies. the Portuguese government, headed by Pedro Passos Coelho, implemented measures to improve the state's financial situation, and the country was moving in the right direction. This also led to high social costs such as a dramatic increase in the unemployment rate to over 15 percent in 2012. The result was a positive stabilization of the Portuguese public finances, increasing productivity, improved competitiveness, and increased attractiveness for foreigners to invest in Portugal.


Portugal has a diversified industry including many different branches. Major industries in Portugal include machinery, electrical and electronics industries, automotive and shipbuilding industries, injection molding, plastics and ceramics industries, textile, footwear and leather industries, oil refinery, petrochemistry and cement industries, beverages and food industries and furniture, pulp and paper, wood and cork industries. In later years, the country has attracted new industries like aerospace, biotechnology, and information technology.
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The agriculture sector is famous for wine and olive oil. The Portuguese fishing industry is large and diversified. It is divided into local fishing vessels, coastal fishing vessels, and long-distance fishing vessels. Even if Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in Europe, much fishing is done on international water far away. The energy sector is at the frontline, and Portugal has one of the world's most renewable energy production systems. Tourism has developed significantly, generating around 20 % of GDP while Portugal is rated one of the most popular lands in the world for tourists.
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Education in Portugal has been modernized and achieved recognition for its high level. Portugal has several world-class universities and business schools that are attracting an increasing number of foreign students. Healthcare has also dramatically improved and has reached a very high international level.